Exceptional food that worth a special journey. And all other foods that can kill you.
Friday
Debunking the Paleo Diet: Scam or Fad-diet? by Christina Warinner at TEDx- Caveman Diet Review
Paleo
Diet or Caveman Diet Review
TED Fellow Christina
Warinner is an expert on ancient diets. So how much of the diet fad the
"Paleo Diet" is based on an actual Paleolithic diet? The answer is
not really any of it.
Dr.
Christina Warinner
has excavated around the world, from the Maya jungles of Belize to the
Himalayan mountains of Nepal, and she is pioneering the biomolecular
investigation of archaeological dental calculus (tartar) to study long-term
trends in human health and diet. She is a 2012 TED Fellow, and her work has
been featured in Wired UK, the Observer, CNN.com, Der Freitag, and Sveriges TV.
She obtained her Ph.D. from Harvard
University in 2010, specializing in ancient DNA analysis and paleodietary
reconstruction.
What
Is The Paleo Diet? - The Paleo Diet Explained
Here the world's #1
expert in Paleo Diet, professor Loren Cordain, explains what you need to know
and answers common questions. For example: Is Paleo always low carb? What's
wrong with vegan diets? What single dairy product is ok to eat?
A.
The Paleo Diet
The paleolithic diet
(abbreviated paleo diet or paleodiet), also popularly referred to as the
caveman diet, Stone Age diet and hunter-gatherer diet, is a modern nutritional
plan based on the presumed ancient diet of wild plants and animals that various
hominid species habitually consumed during the Paleolithic era—a period of
about 2.5 million years which ended around 10,000 years ago with the
development of agriculture and grain-based diets. In common usage, the term
"paleolithic diet" can also refer to actual ancestral human diets,
insofar as these can be reconstructed.
Centered on commonly
available modern foods, the contemporary "Paleolithic diet" consists
mainly of fish, grass-fed pasture raised meats, eggs, vegetables, fruit, fungi,
roots, and nuts, and excludes grains, legumes, dairy products, potatoes,
refined salt, refined sugar, and processed oils.
First popularized in
the mid-1970s by gastroenterologist Walter L. Voegtlin, this nutritional
concept has been promoted and adapted by a number of authors and researchers in
several books and academic journals. A common theme in evolutionary medicine, Paleolithic nutrition is based on the
premise that human genetics have scarcely changed since the dawn of
agriculture, and modern humans are genetically adapted to the diet of their
Paleolithic ancestors. Therefore an ideal diet for human health and well-being
is one that resembles this ancestral diet.
Proponents of this
diet argue that modern human populations subsisting on traditional diets,
allegedly similar to those of Paleolithic hunter-gatherers, are largely free of
diseases of affluence. They assert that multiple studies of the effect of
Paleolithic diet in humans have shown improved health outcomes relative to
other widely recommended diets. Supporters also point to several potentially
therapeutic nutritional characteristics of pre-agricultural diets.
The paleolithic diet
is a controversial topic amongst some dietitians and anthropologists. An
article on the National Health Service of the United Kingdom Choices website
refers to it as a fad diet.
The Paleo Diet is
based upon every day, modern foods that mimic the food groups of our
pre-agricultural, hunter-gatherer ancestors. The following seven fundamental
characteristics of hunter-gatherer diets will help to optimize your health,
minimize your risk of chronic disease, and lose weight.
Present
Practices of Paleo Diet or Caveman Diet
The paleolithic diet
is a modern dietary regimen that seeks to mimic the diet of pre-agricultural
hunter-gatherers; it generally corresponds to what was available in any of the
ecological niches of Paleolithic humans. Based upon commonly available modern
foods, it includes cultivated plants and domesticated animal meat as an
alternative to the wild sources of the original pre-agricultural diet. The
ancestral human diet is inferred from historical and ethnographic studies of
modern-day hunter-gatherers as well as archaeological finds, anthropological
evidence and application of optimal foraging theory.
The Paleolithic diet
consists of foods that can be hunted and fished, such as meat, offal, and
seafood, and foods that can be gathered, such as eggs, insects, fruit, nuts,
seeds, vegetables, mushrooms, herbs, and spices. Some sources advise eating
only lean cuts of meat, free of food additives, preferably wild game meats and
grass-fed beef since they contain higher levels of omega-3 fats compared with
grain-produced domestic meats. Food groups that advocates claim were rarely or
never consumed by humans before the Neolithic (agricultural) revolution are
excluded from the diet, mainly grains,
legumes (e.g. beans and peanuts), dairy products, salt, refined sugar and processed oils. Some advocates consider
the use of oils with low omega-6/omega-3 ratios, such as olive and canola oils,
to be healthy and advisable.
On the Paleolithic
diet, practitioners are permitted to drink mainly water, and some advocates
recommend tea as a healthy drink. Eating a wide variety of plant foods is
recommended to avoid high intakes of potentially harmful bioactive substances,
such as goitrogens, which are present in some roots, vegetables, and seeds.
Unlike raw food diets, all foods may be cooked, without restrictions. But,
there are Paleolithic dieters who believe that humans have not adapted to
cooked foods, and so they eat only foods which are both raw and Paleolithic. Want
to learn more why we cook our food...? Watch this video (Did the Discovery of Cooking Make Us
Human?) and
learn why it is better to cook some type of food than to eat it raw. Learn why
cooking our food created 'big human brains'?
According to certain
proponents of the Paleolithic diet, practitioners should derive about 56–65% of
their food energy from animal foods and 36–45% from plant foods. They recommend
a diet high in protein (19–35% energy) and relatively low in carbohydrates
(22–40% energy), with a fat intake (28–58% energy) similar to or higher than that found in Western diets.
Staffan Lindeberg
advocates a Paleolithic diet, but does not recommend any particular proportions
of plants versus meat or macronutrient ratios. According to Lindeberg, calcium
supplementation may be considered when the intake of green leafy vegetables and
other dietary sources of calcium is limited.
1.
Higher protein intake –
Protein comprises 15 % of the calories in the average western diet, which is
considerably lower than the average values of 19-35 % found in hunter-gatherer
diets. Meat, seafood, and other animal products represent the staple foods of
modern day Paleo diets.
2.
Lower carbohydrate intake and lower glycemic index – Non-starchy fresh fruits and
vegetables represent the main carbohydrate source and will provide for 35-45 %
of your daily calories. Almost all of these foods have low glycemic indices
that are slowly digested and absorbed, and won’t spike blood sugar levels.
3.
Higher fiber intake
– Dietary fiber is essential for good health, and despite what we’re told,
whole grains aren’t the place to find it. Non-starchy vegetables contain eight
times more fiber than whole grains and 31 times more than refined grains. Even
fruits contain twice as much fiber as whole grains and seven times more than
refined grains.
4.
Moderate to higher fat intake dominated by mono-unsaturated and polyunsaturated
fats with balanced Omega-3 and Omega-6 fats – It is not the total amount of fat in your diet that
raises your blood cholesterol levels and increases your risk for heart disease,
cancer, and type 2 diabetes, but rather the type of fat. Cut the trans fats and
the Omega-6 polyunsaturated fats in your diet and increase the healthful
monounsaturated and Omega-3 fats that were the mainstays of Stone Age diets.
Recent large population studies known as meta analyses show that saturated fats
have little or no adverse effects upon cardiovascular disease risk.
5.
Higher potassium and lower sodium intake – Unprocessed, fresh foods naturally contain 5 to 10
times more potassium than sodium, and Stone Age bodies were adapted to this
ratio. Potassium is necessary for the heart, kidneys, and other organs to work
properly. Low potassium is associated with high blood pressure, heart disease,
and stroke – the same problems linked to excessive dietary sodium. Today, the
average American consumes about twice as much sodium as potassium.
6.
Net dietary alkaline load that balances dietary acid – After digestion, all foods present
either a net acid or alkaline load to the kidneys. Acid producers are meats,
fish, grains, legumes, cheese, and salt. Alkaline-yielding foods are fruits and
veggies (Learn how to store fruits and
vegetables at home).
A lifetime of excessive dietary acid may promote bone and muscle loss, high
blood pressure, and increased risk for kidney stones, and may aggravate asthma
and exercise-induced asthma.
7.
Higher intake of, vitamins, minerals, antioxidants, and plant phytochemicals – Whole grains are not a good
substitute for grass produced or free ranging meats, fruits, and veggies, as
they contain no vitamin C, vitamin A, or vitamin B12. Many of the minerals and
some of the B vitamins whole grains do contain are not well absorbed by the
body.
B.
Research on Paleo Diet or Caveman Diet
1.
Archeological record
One line of evidence
used to support the Stone Age diet is the decline in human health and body mass
that occurred with the adoption of agriculture, at the end of the Paleolithic
era. Associated with the introduction of domesticated and processed plant
foods, such as cereal grains, in the human diet, there was, in many areas, a
general decrease in body stature and dentition size, and an increase in dental
caries rates. There is evidence of a general decline in health in some areas; whether the decline was caused by dietary
change is debated academically.
2.
Observational studies
Based on the
subsistence patterns and biomarkers of hunter-gatherers studied in the last
century, advocates argue that modern humans are well adapted to the diet of
their Paleolithic ancestor. The diet of modern hunter-gatherer groups is
believed to be representative of patterns for humans of fifty to twenty-five
thousand years ago, and individuals from these and other technologically
primitive societies, including those individuals who reach the age of 60 or
beyond, seem to be largely free of the signs and symptoms of chronic disease
(such as obesity, high blood pressure, nonobstructive coronary atherosclerosis,
and insulin resistance) that universally afflict the elderly in western
societies (with the exception of osteoarthritis, which afflicts both
populations). Moreover, when these people adopt western diets, their health
declines and they begin to exhibit signs and symptoms of "diseases of
civilization".
In one clinical study,
stroke and ischaemic heart disease appeared to be absent in a population living
on the island of Kitava, in Papua New Guinea, where a subsistence lifestyle,
uninfluenced by western dietary habits, was still maintained.
One
of the most frequent criticisms of the Paleolithic diet is that it is unlikely
that pre-agricultural hunter-gatherers suffered from the diseases of modern
civilization simply because they did not live long enough to develop these
illnesses, which are typically associated with old age. According to S. Jay Olshansky and
Bruce Carnes, "there is neither convincing evidence nor scientific logic
to support the claim that adherence to a Paleolithic diet provides a longevity
benefit." In response to this argument, advocates of the paleodiet state
that while Paleolithic hunter-gatherers did have a short average life
expectancy, modern human populations with lifestyles resembling that of our pre-agricultural
ancestors have little or no diseases of affluence, despite sufficient numbers
of elderly. In hunter-gatherer societies where demographic data is available,
the elderly are present, but they tend to have high mortality rates and rarely
survive past the age of 80, with causes of death (when known) ranging from
injuries to measles and tuberculosis.
Critics further
contend that food energy excess, rather than the consumption of specific novel
foods, such as grains and dairy products, underlies the diseases of affluence.
According to Geoffrey Cannon, science and health policy advisor to the World
Cancer Research Fund, humans are designed to work hard physically to produce
food for subsistence and to survive periods of acute food shortage, and are not
adapted to a diet rich in energy-dense foods. Similarly, William R. Leonard, a
professor of anthropology at Northwestern University, states that the health
problems facing industrial societies stem not from deviations from a specific
ancestral diet but from an imbalance between calories consumed and calories
burned, a state of energy excess uncharacteristic of ancestral lifestyles.
3.
Intervention studies
The first animal
experiment on a Paleolithic diet suggested that this diet, as compared with a
cereal-based diet, conferred higher insulin sensitivity, lower C-reactive
protein and lower blood pressure in 24 domestic pigs. There was no difference
in basal serum glucose. The first human clinical randomized controlled trial
involved 29 people with glucose intolerance and ischemic heart disease, and it
found that those on a Paleolithic diet had a greater improvement in glucose
tolerance compared to those on a Mediterranean diet. Furthermore, the
Paleolithic diet was found to be more satiating per calorie compared to the
Mediterranean diet.
A clinical,
randomized, controlled cross-over study in the primary care setting compared
the Paleolithic diet with a commonly prescribed diet for type 2 diabetes. The
Paleolithic diet resulted in lower mean values of HbA1c, triacylglycerol,
diastolic blood pressure, body mass index, waist circumference and higher
values of high density lipoprotein when compared to the Diabetes diet. Also, glycemic
control and other cardiovascular factors were improved in both diets without
significant differences. It is also important to note that the Paleolithic diet
was lower in total energy, energy density, carbohydrate, dietary glycemic load
and glycemic index, saturated fatty acids and calcium, but higher in
unsaturated fatty acids, dietary cholesterol and some vitamins. Two clinical
trials designed to test various physiological effects of the Paleolithic diet
are currently underway, and the results of one completed trial have shown
metabolic and physiologic improvements. The European Journal of Clinical
Nutrition published a study of a trial of the Paleolithic diet in 20 healthy
volunteers. The study had no control group, and only 14 individuals completed
the diet. In the study, in three weeks there was an average weight reduction of
2.3 kg, an average reduction in waist circumference of 1.5 cm (about one-half
inch), an average reduction in systolic blood pressure of 3 mm Hg, and a 72%
reduction in plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (which might translate into a
reduced risk of heart attack and stroke.) However, the NHS Knowledge Service
pointed out that this study, like most human diet studies, relied on
observational data.
The NHS concluded that
the lack of a control group, and the small sample of size of the study,
compromises their conclusions. With only
14 participants the study lacks the statistical power to detect health
improvements, and perhaps the simple fact that these 14 individuals knew that they
were on a diet program made them more aware of weight and exercise regime,
skewing the results.
C.
Reception
Critics have argued
that to the extent that hunter-gatherer societies fail to suffer from
"diseases of civilization", this may be due to reduced calories in
their diet, shorter average lifespan, or a variety of other factors, rather
than dietary composition. Some researchers have also taken issue with the
accuracy of the diet's underlying evolutionary logic or suggested that the diet
could potentially pose health risks.
A 2011 ranking by U.S.
News & World Report, involving a panel of 22 experts, ranked the Paleo diet
lowest of the 20 diets evaluated based on factors including health, weight-loss
and ease of following. These results were repeated in the 2012 survey, in which
the diet tied with the Dukan diet for the lowest ranking out of 29 diets; U.S.
News & World Report stated that their experts "took issue with the
diet on every measure". However, one expert involved in the ranking stated
that a "true Paleo diet might be a great option: very lean, pure meats,
lots of wild plants. The modern approximations… are far from it." He added
that "duplicating such a regimen in
modern times would be difficult."
The U.S. News ranking
assumed a low-carb version of the paleo diet, specifically containing only 23%
carbohydrates. Higher carbohydrate versions of the paleo diet, which allow for
significant consumption of root vegetables, were not a part of this ranking.
Dr. Loren Cordain, a proponent of a low-carbohydrate Paleolithic diet,
responded to the U.S. News ranking, stating that their "conclusions are
erroneous and misleading" and pointing out that "five studies, four
since 2007, have experimentally tested contemporary versions of ancestral human
diets and have found them to be superior to Mediterranean diets, diabetic diets
and typical western diets in regard to weight loss, cardiovascular disease risk
factors and risk factors for type 2 diabetes." The editors of the U.S.
News ranking replied that they had reviewed the five studies and found them to
be "small and short, making strong conclusions difficult".
D.
Opposing Views
Critics have
questioned the accuracy of the science on which the diet is based. John A.
McDougall (M.D), author of The Starch Solution: Eat the Foods
You Love, Regain Your Health, and Lose the Weight for Good!, attempted to discredit the science
used to determine the paleolithic diet, and proposed that the real paleolithic
diet or human diet around this time was instead based primarily on starches.
Based on John A.
McDougall (M.D) study, around the globe—any
region with a large population of trim, healthy people reveals the same truth:
Healthy populations get most of their calories from starch. Eat a traditional
meal in Japan, China, or most any Asian country and you will find y our bowl
filled with rice, possibly alongside sweet potatoes and buckwheat. The same
truth dates back throughout recorded human history. The Incas of South America
centered their diet on potatoes. The Incan warriors switched to quinoa for
strength prior to battle. The Mayans and Aztecs of Central America were known
as “the people of
the corn.” The ancient
Egyptians’ starch of
choice was wheat.
Throughout
civilization and around the world, six foods have provided our primary fuel: barley , corn, millet, potatoes, rice, and wheat.
Science documents it
well: Over at least the past 13,000 y ears, starch has been central to the
diets of all healthy, large, successful populations. In fact, new discoveries
show evidence of starch-based diets even earlier. Explained on this video, The Food We Were Born to Eat.
The evolutionary
assumptions underlying the Paleolithic diet have been disputed. According to Alexander Ströhle, Maike Wolters and Andreas
Hahn, with the Department of Food Science at the University of Hanover, the
statement that the human genome evolved during the Pleistocene (a period from
1,808,000 to 11,550 years ago) rests on the gene-centered view of evolution,
which they believe to be controversial. They rely on Gray (2001) to argue that
evolution of organisms cannot be reduced to the genetic level with reference to
mutation, and that there is no one-to-one relationship between genotype and
phenotype. They further question the notion that 10,000 years is an
insufficient period of time to ensure an adequate adaptation to agrarian diets.
They note that alleles conferring lactose tolerance increased to high
frequencies in Europe just a few thousand years after animal husbandry was invented.
Recent increases in the number of copies of the gene for salivary amylase,
which digests starch, appear to be related to the development of agriculture.
Referring to Wilson
(1994), Ströhle et al. argue that "the number of generations that a species
existed in the old environment was irrelevant, and that the response to the
change of the environment of a species would depend on the heritability of the
traits, the intensity of selection and the number of generations that selection
acts." They state that if the diet of Neolithic agriculturalists had been
in discordance with their physiology, then this would have created a selection
pressure for evolutionary change. Modern humans, such as Europeans, whose
ancestors have subsisted on agrarian diets for 400–500 generations, should be
somehow adequately adapted to it.
In response to this
argument, Wolfgang Kopp states that "we have to take into account that
death from atherosclerosis and cardiovascular disease (CVD) occurs later during
life, as a rule after the reproduction phase. Even a high mortality from CVD
after the reproduction phase will create little selection pressure. Thus, it
seems that a diet can be functional (it keeps us going) and dysfunctional (it
causes health problems) at the same time."
Moreover, S. Boyd Eaton and colleagues have indicated that
"comparative genetic data provide compelling evidence against the
contention that long exposure to agricultural and industrial circumstances has
distanced us, genetically, from our Stone Age ancestors"; however, they
mention exceptions such as increased lactose and gluten tolerance, which
improve ability to digest dairy and grains, while other studies indicate that
human adaptive evolution has accelerated since the Paleolithic.
Referencing Mahner et
al. (2001) and Ströhle et al. (2006), Ströhle et al. state that "whatever
is the fact, to think that a dietary factor is valuable (functional) to the
organism only when there was ‘genetical adaptation’ and hence a new dietary
factor is dysfunctional per se because there was no evolutionary adaptation to
it, such a panselectionist misreading of biological evolution seems to be
inspired by a naive adaptationistic view of life."
Katharine Milton, a
professor of physical anthropology at the University of California, Berkeley,
has also disputed the evolutionary logic upon which the Paleolithic diet is
based. She questions the premise that the metabolism of modern humans must be
genetically adapted to the dietary conditions of the Paleolithic. Relying on several
of her previous publications, Milton states that "there is little evidence
to suggest that human nutritional requirements or human digestive physiology
were significantly affected by such diets at any point in human
evolution."
There is some evidence
suggesting that Paleolithic societies were processing cereals for food use at
least as early as 23,000. These findings are a matter of dispute.
1.
Plant-to-animal ratio
The specific plant to
animal food ratio in the Paleolithic diet is also a matter of some dispute. The
average diet among modern hunter-gatherer societies is estimated to consist of
64–68% of animal calories and 32–36% of plant calories, with animal calories
further divided between fished and hunted animals in varying proportions (most
typically, with hunted animal food comprising 26–35% of the overall diet). As
part of the Man the Hunter paradigm, this ratio was used as the basis of the
earliest forms of the Paleolithic diet by Voegtlin, Eaton and others. To this
day, many advocates of the Paleolithic diet consider high percentage of animal
flesh to be one of the key features of the diet.
However, great
disparities do exist, even between different modern hunter-gatherer societies.
The animal-derived calorie percentage ranges from 25% in the Gwi people of
southern Africa, to 99% in Alaskan Nunamiut. The animal-derived percentage
value is skewed upwards by polar hunter-gatherer societies, who have no choice
but to eat animal food because of the inaccessibility of plant foods. Since
those environments were only populated relatively recently (for example,
Paleo-Indian ancestors of Nunamiut are thought to have arrived in Alaska no
earlier than 30,000 years ago), such diets represent recent adaptations rather
than conditions that shaped human evolution during much of the Paleolithic.
More generally,
hunting and fishing tend to provide a higher percentage of energy in forager
societies living at higher latitudes. Excluding cold-climate and equestrian
foragers results in a diet structure of 52% plant calories, 26% hunting
calories, and 22% fishing calories. Furthermore, those numbers may still not be
representative of a typical Stone Age diet, since fishing did not become common
in many parts of the world until the Upper Paleolithic period 35-40 thousand
years ago,] and early humans' hunting abilities were relatively limited,
compared to modern hunter-gatherers, as well (the oldest incontrovertible
evidence for the existence of bows only dates to about 8000 BCE, and nets and
traps were invented 20,000 to 29,000 years ago).
Another view is that,
up until the Upper Paleolithic, humans were frugivores (fruit eaters), who supplemented their meals with
carrion, eggs, and small prey such as baby birds and mussels, and, only on rare
occasions, managed to kill and consume big game such as antelopes. This view is
supported by the studies of higher apes, particularly chimpanzees. Chimpanzees
are closest to humans genetically, sharing more than 98% of their DNA code with
humans, and their digestive tract is functionally very similar to that of
humans.
Chimpanzees are
primarily frugivores, but they could and would consume and digest animal flesh,
given the opportunity. In general, their actual diet in the wild is about 95%
plant-based, with the remaining 5% filled with insects, eggs, and baby animals.
However, in some ecosystems chimpanzees are predatory, forming parties to hunt
monkeys. Some comparative studies of human and higher primate digestive tracts
do suggest that humans have evolved to obtain greater amounts of calories from
sources such as animal foods, allowing them to shrink the size of the
gastrointestinal tract, relative to body mass, and to increase the brain mass
instead.
A difficulty with the
frugivore point of view is that humans are established to conditionally require
certain long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFAs), such as AA and DHA,
from the diet. Human LC-PUFA requirements are much greater than chimpanzees'
because of humans' larger brain mass, and humans' abilities to synthesize them
from other nutrients are poor, suggesting readily available external sources.
Pregnant and lactating females require 100 mg of DHA per day. But LC-PUFAs are
almost nonexistent in plants and in most tissues of warm-climate animals.
The main sources of
DHA in the modern human diet are fish and the fatty organs of animals, such as
brains, eyes and viscera. Microalgae is a farmed plant-based source commonly
used by vegetarians. Despite the general shortage of evidence for extensive
fishing, thought to require relatively sophisticated tools which have become
available only in the last 30–50 thousand years, it has been argued that
exploitation of coastal fauna somehow provided hominids with abundant LC-PUFAs.
Alternatively, it has been proposed that early hominids frequently scavenged
predators' kills and consumed parts which were left untouched by predators,
most commonly the brain, which is very high in AA and DHA. Just 100 g of
scavenged African ruminant brain matter provide more DHA than is consumed by a
typical modern U.S. adult in the course of a week. Other authors suggested that
human ability to convert alpha-Linolenic acid into DHA, while poor, is,
nevertheless, adequate to prevent DHA deficiency in a plant-based diet.
2.
Nutritional factors and health effects
Since the end of the
Paleolithic period, several foods that humans rarely or never consumed during
previous stages of their evolution have been introduced as staples in their
diet. With the advent of agriculture and the beginning of animal domestication
roughly 10,000 years ago, during the Neolithic Revolution, humans started
consuming large amounts of dairy products, beans, cereals, alcohol and salt. In
the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the Industrial revolution led to the
large scale development of mechanized food processing techniques and intensive
livestock farming methods, that enabled the production of refined cereals,
refined sugars and refined vegetable oils, as well as fattier domestic meats,
which have become major components of Western diets.
Such food staples have
fundamentally altered several key nutritional characteristics of the human diet
since the Paleolithic era, including glycemic load, fatty acid composition,
macronutrient composition, micronutrient density, acid-base balance,
sodium-potassium ratio, and fiber content.
These dietary
compositional changes have been theorized as risk factors in the pathogenesis
of many of the so-called "diseases of civilization" and other chronic
illnesses that are widely prevalent in Western societies, including obesity,
cardiovascular disease, high blood pressure, type 2 diabetes, osteoporosis,
autoimmune diseases, colorectal cancer, myopia, acne, depression, and diseases
related to vitamin and mineral deficiencies.
3.
Macronutrient composition
i.
Protein and carbohydrates
"The increased
contribution of carbohydrate from grains to the human diet following the
agricultural revolution has effectively diluted the protein content of the
human diet." In modern hunter-gatherer diets, dietary protein is
characteristically elevated (19–35% of energy) at the expense of carbohydrate
(22–40% of energy). High-protein diets may have a cardiovascular protective
effect and may represent an effective weight loss strategy for the overweight
or obese. Furthermore, carbohydrate restriction may help prevent obesity and
type 2 diabetes, as well as atherosclerosis. Carbohydrate deprivation to the
point of ketosis has been argued both to have negative and positive effects on
health.
The notion that pre-agricultural
hunter-gatherers would have typically consumed a diet relatively low in
carbohydrate and high in protein has been questioned. Critics argue that there
is insufficient data to identify the relative proportions of plant and animal
foods consumed on average by Paleolithic humans in general, and they stress the
rich variety of ancient and modern hunter-gatherer diets. Furthermore, pre-agricultural
hunter-gatherers may have generally consumed large quantities of carbohydrates
in the form of carbohydrate-rich tubers (plant underground storage organs).
According to Staffan Lindeberg, an advocate of the Paleolithic diet, a
plant-based diet rich in carbohydrates is consistent with the human
evolutionary past.
It has also been
argued that relative freedom from degenerative diseases was, and still is,
characteristic of all hunter-gatherer societies irrespective of the
macronutrient characteristics of their diets. Marion Nestle, a professor in the
Department of Nutrition and Food Studies at New York University, judging from
research relating nutritional factors to chronic disease risks and to
observations of exceptionally low chronic disease rates among people eating
vegetarian, Mediterranean and Asian diets, has suggested that plant-based diets
may be most associated with health and longevity.
ii.
Fatty acids
Hunter-gatherer
diets have been argued to maintain relatively high levels of monounsaturated
and polyunsaturated fats, moderate levels of saturated fats (10–15% of total
food energy) as well as a low omega-6:omega-3 fatty acid ratio. Cows fed a
grass-based diet produce significant amounts of omega-3 fatty acids compared to
grain-fed animals, while minimizing trans fats and saturated fats. The diet
does include a significant amount of cholesterol due to the inclusion of lean
meat. These nutritional factors may serve to inhibit the development of
cardiovascular disease. This high ratio of polyunsaturated to saturated fats
has been challenged. While a low saturated fat intake was argued for it has
been argued that hunter-gatherers would selectively hunt fatter animals and utilize
the fattiest parts of the animals (such as bone marrow). Watch Food Documentaries- The Men Who Made
Us Fat. If you
don't have time bookmark it and watch it later.
iii.
Energy density
The Paleolithic diet
has lower energy density than the typical diet consumed by modern humans. This
is especially true in primarily plant-based/vegetarian versions of the diet,
but it still holds if substantial amounts of lean meat are included in
calculations. For example, most fruits and berries contain 0.4 to 0.8 calories
per gram, vegetables can be even lower than that (cucumbers contain only 0.16
calories per gram). Lean game meat, such as cooked wild rabbit, is more
energy-dense (up to 1.7 calories per gram), but it does not constitute the bulk
of the diet by mass/volume at the recommended plant/animal ratios, and it does
not reach the densities of many processed foods commonly consumed by modern humans:
most McDonalds sandwiches such as the Big Mac average 2.4 to 2.8 calories/gram,
and sweets such as cookies and chocolate bars commonly exceed 4 calories/gram.
There is substantial
evidence that people consuming high energy-density diets are prone to overeating
and they are at a greater risk of weight gain. Conversely, low caloric density
diets tend to provide a greater satiety feeling at the same energy intake, and
they have been shown effective at achieving weight loss in overweight
individuals without explicit caloric restrictions.
Even some authors who
may otherwise appear to be critical of the concept of Paleolithic diet have
argued that high energy density of modern diets, as compared to
ancestral/primate diets, contributes to the rate of diseases of affluence in
the industrial world.
4.
Micronutrient density
Fruits, vegetables,
meat and organ meats, and seafood, which are staples of the hunter-gatherer
diet, are more micronutrient-dense than refined sugars, grains, vegetable oils,
and dairy products in relation to digestible energy. Consequently, the vitamin
and mineral content of the diet is very high compared with a standard diet, in
many cases a multiple of the RDA.
Fish and seafood
represent a particularly rich source of omega-3 fatty acids and other
micronutrients, such as iodine, iron, zinc, copper, and selenium, that are
crucial for proper brain function and development. Terrestrial animal foods,
such as muscle, brain, bone marrow, thyroid gland, and other organs, also
represent a primary source of these nutrients. Calcium-poor grains and legumes
are excluded from the diet.
Although, leafy greens
like Kale and dandelion greens as well as nuts such as almonds are very high
sources of calcium. Also, components in plants make their low calcium amounts
much more easily absorbed, unlike items with high calcium content such as dairy
two notable exceptions are calcium (see below) and vitamin D, both of which may
be present in the diet in inadequate quantities. Modern humans require much
more vitamin D than hunter-gatherers, because they do not get the same amount
of exposure to sun. This need is commonly satisfied in developed countries by
artificially fortifying dairy products with the vitamin. To avoid deficiency, a
modern human on a hunter-gatherer diet would have to take artificial
supplements of the vitamin, ensure adequate intake of some fatty fish, or
increase the amount of exposure to sunlight (it has been estimated that 30
minutes of exposure to mid-day sun twice a week is adequate for most people).
5.
Fiber content and glycemic load
Despite its relatively
low carbohydrate content, the Paleolithic
diet involves a substantial increase in consumption of fruit and
vegetables, compared to the Western diet, potentially as high as 1.65 to 1.9
kg/day. Hunter-gatherer diets, which rely on uncultivated, heavily fibrous
fruit and vegetables, contain even more. Fiber intake in pre-agricultural diets
is thought to have exceeded 100 g/day. This is dramatically higher than the
actual current U.S. intake of 15 g/day.
6.
Fiber content and glycemic load
Despite its relatively
low carbohydrate content, the Paleolithic diet involves a substantial increase
in consumption of fruit and vegetables, compared to the Western diet,
potentially as high as 1.65 to 1.9 kg/day. Hunter-gatherer diets, which rely on
uncultivated, heavily fibrous fruit and vegetables, contain even more. Fiber
intake in pre-agricultural diets is thought to have exceeded 100 g/day. This is
dramatically higher than the actual current U.S. intake of 15 g/day.
Unrefined wild plant
foods like those available to contemporary hunter-gatherers typically exhibit
low glycemic indices. Moreover, dairy products, such as milk, have low glycemic
indices, but are highly insulinotropic, with an insulin index similar to that
of white bread. However, in fermented milk products, such as yogurt, the
presence of organic acids may counteract the insulinotropic effect of milk in
mixed meals. These dietary characteristics may lower risk of diabetes, obesity
and other related syndrome X diseases by placing less stress on the pancreas to
produce insulin due to staggered absorption of glucose, thus preventing insulin
insensitivity.
7.
Sodium-potassium ratio
It has been estimated
that people in the Paleolithic era consumed 11,000 mg of potassium and 700 mg
of sodium daily.
The dominance of
sodium over potassium in the U.S. diet adversely affects cardiovascular
function and contributes to hypertension and stroke: the Paleolithic diet
inverts this ratio.
8.
Calcium and acid-base balance
Diets containing high
amounts of animal products, animal protein, processed foods, and other foods
that induce and sustain increased acidity of body fluid may contribute to the
development of osteoporosis and renal stones, loss of muscle mass, and age-related
renal insufficiency due to the body's use of calcium to buffer pH. The paleo
diet may not contain the high levels of calcium recommended in the U.S. to
prevent these effects. However, because of the absence of cereals and
energy-dense, nutrient-poor foods in the ancestral hunter-gatherer diet—foods
that displace base-yielding fruits and vegetables—that diet has been estimated
to produce a net base load on the body, as opposed to a net acid load, which
may reduce calcium excretion.
9.
Bioactive substances and antinutrients
Furthermore, cereal
grains, legumes and milk contain bioactive substances, such as gluten and
casein, which have been implicated in the development of various health
problems. Consumption of gluten, a component of certain grains, such as wheat,
rye and barley, is known to have adverse health effects in individuals
suffering from a range of gluten sensitivities, including celiac disease. Since
the Paleolithic diet is devoid of cereal grains, it is free of gluten. The
paleo diet is also casein-free. Casein, a protein found in milk and dairy
products, may impair glucose tolerance in humans.
Compared to
Paleolithic food groups, cereal grains and legumes contain high amounts of
antinutrients, including alkylresorcinols, alpha-amylase inhibitors, protease
inhibitors, lectins and phytates, substances known to interfere with the body's
absorption of many key nutrients. Molecular-mimicking proteins, which are
basically made up of strings of amino acids that closely resemble those of
another totally different protein, are also found in grains and legumes, as
well as milk and dairy products. Advocates of the Paleolithic diet have argued
that these components of agrarian diets promote vitamin and mineral
deficiencies and may explain the development of the "diseases of
civilization" as well as a number of autoimmune-related diseases.
E.
History of Paleo Diet
Gastroenterologist Walter L. Voegtlin was one of the first
to suggest that following a diet similar to that of the Paleolithic era would
improve a person's health. In 1975, he self-published The Stone Age Diet: Based on
In-depth Studies of Human Ecology and the Diet of Man, in which he argued that humans are carnivorous animals.
He noted that the ancestral Paleolithic diet was that of a carnivore — chiefly
fats and protein, with small amounts of carbohydrates. His dietary
prescriptions were based on his own medical treatments of various digestive
problems, namely colitis, Crohn's disease, irritable bowel syndrome and
indigestion.
In 1985, S. Boyd Eaton
and Melvin Konner, both of Emory University, published a paper on Paleolithic
nutrition in the New England Journal of Medicine, which attracted wider
mainstream medical attention to the concept. Three years later, S. Boyd Eaton,
Konner, and Marjorie Shostak published a book about this nutritional approach,
which was based on achieving the same proportions of nutrients (fat, protein,
and carbohydrates, as well as vitamins and minerals) as were present in the
diets of late Paleolithic people. It did
not exclude foods that were not available before the development of
agriculture. As such, this nutritional approach included skimmed milk,
whole-grain bread, brown rice, and potatoes prepared without fat, on the
premise that such foods supported a diet with the same macronutrient
composition as the Paleolithic diet. In 1989, these authors published a second
book on Paleolithic nutrition.
Starting in 1989,
Staffan Lindeberg, a Swedish medical doctor and scientist now associate
professor at Lund University, led scientific surveys of the non-westernized
population on Kitava, one of the Trobriand Islands of Papua New Guinea. These
surveys, collectively referred to as the Kitava
Study, found that this population apparently did not suffer from stroke,
ischemic heart disease, diabetes, obesity or hypertension. Starting with the
first publication in 1993, scholars with the Kitava Study have published a
number of scientific works on the relationship between diet and western
disease.
In 2003, Lindeberg
published a Swedish-language medical textbook on the subject. In 2010, this
book was wholly revised, updated, translated and published for the first time
in English.
Since the end of the
1990s, a number of medical doctors and nutritionists have advocated a return to
a so-called Paleolithic (pre-agricultural) diet. Proponents of this nutritional
approach have published books and created websites to promote their dietary
prescriptions. They have synthesized diets from modern foods that emulate
nutritional characteristics of the ancient Paleolithic diet. Some of these
allow specific foods that would have been unavailable to pre-agricultural
peoples, such as some animal products (i.e. dairy), processed oils, and
beverages.
F.
Rationale and Evolutionary Assumptions
According to S. Boyd
Eaton, "we are the heirs of inherited characteristics accrued over
millions of years; the vast majority of our biochemistry and physiology are
tuned to life conditions that existed before the advent of agriculture some
10,000 years ago. Genetically our bodies are virtually the same as they were at
the end of the Paleolithic era some 20,000 years ago."
Paleolithic nutrition
has its roots in evolutionary biology and is a common theme in evolutionary
medicine. The reasoning underlying this nutritional approach is that natural
selection had sufficient time to genetically adapt the metabolism and
physiology of Paleolithic humans to the varying dietary conditions of that era.
But in the 10,000 years since the invention of agriculture and its consequent
major change in the human diet, natural selection has had too little time to
make the optimal genetic adaptations to the new diet. Physiological and
metabolic maladaptations result from the suboptimal genetic adaptations to the
contemporary human diet, which in turn contribute to many of the so-called
diseases of civilization.
More than 70% of the
total daily energy consumed by all people in the United States comes from foods
such as dairy products, cereals, refined sugars, refined vegetable oils and
alcohol. Advocates of the Paleolithic diet assert these foods contributed
little or none of the energy in the typical pre-agricultural hominin diet.
Proponents of this diet argue that excessive consumption of these novel
Neolithic and industrial-era foods is responsible for the current epidemic
levels of obesity, cardiovascular disease, high blood pressure, type 2
diabetes, osteoporosis and cancer in the US and other contemporary Western
populations.
G.
Physical Activity
Researchers
have applied the evolutionary rationale to the paleolithic lifestyle to argue
for high levels of physical activity in addition to dietary practices. They suggest that human genes
"evolved with the expectation of requiring a certain threshold of physical
activity" and that the sedentary lifestyle results in abnormal gene
expression. Compared to ancestral humans, modern humans often have increased
body fat and substantially less lean muscle, which is a risk factor for insulin
resistance. Human metabolic processes were evolved in the presence of physical
activity-rest cycles, which regularly depleted skeletal muscles of their
glycogen stores. To date it is unclear whether these activity cycles
universally included prolonged endurance activity (e.g. persistence hunting) and/or
shorter, higher intensity activity.
S. Boyd Eaton
estimated that ancestral humans spent one-third of their caloric intake on
physical activity (1000 kcal/day out of the total caloric intake of 3000
kcal/day), and that the paleolithic lifestyle was well approximated by the WHO
recommendation of the physical activity level of 1.75, or 60 minutes/day of
moderate-intensity exercise. L. Cordain estimated that the optimal level of
physical activity is on the order of 90 kcal/kg/week (900 kcal/day for a 70 kg
human.)
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the Paleo Diet: Scam or Fad-diet? by Christina Warinner at TEDx- Food
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