Showing posts with label Molecular Gastronomy Chefs. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Molecular Gastronomy Chefs. Show all posts
Thursday
Grant Achatz and the Culinary Cutting Edge- One of the Best Chef in the United States
Grant Achatz is an American chef and restaurateur often identified as one of the leaders in molecular gastronomy (Culinary Physics) or progressive cuisine.
His restaurant in Chicago has won numerous accolades, and Achatz himself has won numerous awards from prominent culinary institutions and publications including the "Rising Star Chef of the Year Award" for 2003, "Best Chef in the United States" for 2008, and a 2012 "Who's Who Inductee" from the James Beard Foundation.
Grant Achatz is one of America's most admired and influential chefs. At his Chicago restaurants, he is reinventing both food and the dining experience.
In 2005, Achatz went out on his own, opening Alinea in Chicago's Lincoln Park neighborhood. The restaurant is located up the block from the famed Steppenwolf Theatre Company and is housed in a modest gray brick building which bears no external markings beyond its street number. Inside, the restaurant has no bar, no lobby, and seats just 64 guests. Achatz serves diners a small-course tasting menu, running approximately 18 courses. After less than two years of operation, the Mobil Travel Guide bestowed its Five Star Award on Alinea, making Alinea one of just 16 restaurants nationwide to rate five stars for 2007.
At Alinea, he builds on the molecular gastronomy pioneered by Spanish chef Ferran Adrià, pushing the boundaries of flavor, texture, and consistency ever outward. In October 2006, Gourmet magazine named Alinea the best restaurant in America in its feature on "America's Top 50 Restaurants". Alinea was awarded three Michelin stars in the 2011 Michelin Guide for Chicago. It was repeated in 2012 when Alinea was the only restaurant to receive three stars in the 2012 Michelin Guide for Chicago.
Achatz's other restaurants include Next, a restaurant that uses a unique ticketing system in Chicago, and Aviary, a bar. Next restaurant has received media interest due its unique "ticketed" format where unlike a traditional reservation system, Next sells pre-priced tickets for specific dates and times in a similar fashion to the way theater, concert, and sporting event tickets are sold.
His restaurant Next offers themed menus for 12 weeks—inspired by early 20th-century Paris or Achatz's Michigan childhood—and experiments with theatricality, seasonality, and the senses. Reservations for Achatz's restaurant, Next, are so sought after, that tickets could be found on Craigslist for up to $500 per person. In February 2012, Achatz held a Dutch Auction for tickets to Next's elBulli-inspired menu, raising over $275,000 for charity in just two days. Auction prices ranged from $4000 – $5000 for parties of two.
Achatz's work parallels that of any avant-garde artist, challenging preconceived notions in a relentless search for the new. Join him in this interesting video as he discusses his culinary and aesthetic vision with Madeleine Grynsztejn, Pritzker Director of the Museum of Contemporary Art Chicago.
Unrelated Post: Interested in the science of cooking? Do you know about... Alginates in Food: Sodium Alginate Uses in Food?
Grant Achatz Bestseller Books
In October 2008, Grant Achatz and co-author Nick Kokonas published Alinea, a hardcover coffee table book featuring more than 100 of the restaurant's recipes. The book's narrative follows life in the kitchen for Achatz and his crew, and includes more than 400 behind-the-scenes photographs by Lara Kastner.
His book Alinea received positive and favorable reviews from critics- to cite a review, " Reading his book, ALINEA, was an eye-opener for me. Showed me what could be done with food, presentation, etc. A MUST HAVE for anyone who is into the culinary arts!"
In June 2009, Achatz and Kokonas sold Life, on the Line: A Chef's Story of Chasing Greatness, Facing Death, and Redefining the Way We Eat, their dual-voiced recount of their collaboration on Alinea and Achatz's battle with cancer to Gotham Books. The book was released on March 3, 2011.
Kokonas and Achatz have also released two digital cookbooks from Next Restaurant Paris: 1906, one on the Apple iBook platform, and one in a more universal PDF format. As in the style of the Alinea cookbook, both books provide the exact recipes used during the Paris 1906 and Tour of Thailand digital cookbook, without making adjustments for the average home cook. While the Paris 1906 book was released for purchase via iTunes, it boasted some interactive aspects.
Tour of Thailand was released on a pay-what-you-want model on Next's ticketing site with prices suggested at $6.99 and $12.99. There have been a few changes with the Thailand eBook: First of all, it's a 163MB PDF that can be used on any device.
Watch Grant Achatz teaching at Harvard University about molecular gastronomy or culinary physics... Reinventing Food Texture and Flavor- Lecture 6- Grant Achatz
Imagine how people eat at Alinea restaurant, watch this quick Youtube video...
Grant Achatz Awards
Best New Chefs, Food & Wine Magazine, 2002
Best Restaurant in America, Gourmet Magazine, 2006
40 Top Chicago Restaurants Ever, Chicago Magazine, #1, 2010
AAA Five Diamond Award, AAA, 2007–2014
Mobil Five Star Award, Mobil Travel Guide, 2007–2010
Jean Banchet Award – Best Celebrity Chef, 2007
Jean Banchet Award – Best Fine Dining, 2007
The S. Pellegrino World's 50 Best Restaurants, #36, 2007
The S. Pellegrino World's 50 Best Restaurants, Highest New Entry, 2007
The S. Pellegrino World's 50 Best Restaurants, #21, 2008
The S. Pellegrino World's 50 Best Restaurants, #10, 2009
The S. Pellegrino World's 50 Best Restaurants, #7, 2010
The S. Pellegrino World's 50 Best Restaurants, The Acqua Panna Best Restaurant In North America, 2010
The S. Pellegrino World's 50 Best Restaurants, #6, 2011
The S. Pellegrino World's 50 Best Restaurants, The Acqua Panna Best Restaurant In North America, 2011
The S. Pellegrino World's 50 Best Restaurants, Chefs' Choice Award, 2013
The S. Pellegrino World's 50 Best Restaurants, #9, 2014
James Beard Foundation Award – Rising Star Chef of the Year, 2003
James Beard Foundation Award – Best Chef: Great Lakes, 2007
James Beard Foundation Award – Outstanding Chef, 2008
James Beard Foundation Award – Book Award: Cooking from a Professional Point of View, 2009
James Beard Foundation Award – Outstanding Service Award, 2010
Top Service Award (Chicago), Zagat Survey, 2006
Zagat Guide "Excellent" Rating, 2008
3 Michelin Stars, 2011
3 Michelin Stars, 2013
The 2011 Time 100
Alinea restaurant took top spot as the best restaurant in the world in 2014's annual poll by Elite Traveler magazine and the house of Champagne Laurent-Perrier.
Do you know that Nathan Myhrvold, another great American molecular gastronomy chef? Get to know him more it might help in your cooking expertise, watch this short video now... Chefs at Google: Nathan Myhrvold- Modernist Cuisine: The Art and Science of Cooking
References:
Achatz, Grant. 2011. Current Biography Yearbook 2011. Ipswich, MA: H.W. Wilson. ISBN 9780824211219
GrubStreet.com
Jamesbeard.starchefs.com
jbfawards.com
Michelin Guide. viamichelin.com
Pollack, Penny. 2010. Top 40 Chicago Restaurants Ever. Chicago Magazine
Wells, Pete. 2010. In Chicago, the Chef Grant Achatz Is Selling Tickets to His New Restaurant. The New York Times
Monday
Chefs at Google: Nathan Myhrvold- Modernist Cuisine: The Art and Science of Cooking
Dr. Nathan Paul Myhrvold is chief executive officer and a founder of Intellectual Ventures, a firm dedicated to creating and investing in inventions. In addition to stimulating the invention of others, Myhrvold is himself an active inventor, with nearly 250 patents issued or pending—including several related to food technology. Before founding his invention company, Myhrvold was the first chief technology officer at Microsoft. He established Microsoft Research, and during his tenure he oversaw many advanced technology projects. He left Microsoft in 1999 to pursue several interests, including a lifelong interest in cooking and food science.
In addition to his business and scientific interests, he is an amateur chef. Myhrvold's early culinary training was as an observer and unpaid apprentice at Rover's, one of Seattle's leading restaurants, with Chef Thierry Rautureau. Myhrvold is the principal author of a culinary text entitled Modernist Cuisine: The Art and Science of Cooking, released in March 2011, on the application of scientific research principles and new techniques and technology to cooking. He has also won first place at the Memphis barbecue championship and appeared as a guest judge on Top Chef.
Myhrvold competed on a team that won first place in several categories at the 1991 World Championship of Barbecue, including first prize in the special pasta category for a recipe that Myhrvold developed on the day of the contest.
After working for two years as a stagierat Seattle's top French restaurant, Rover's, Myhrvold completed culinary training with renowned chef Anne Willan at the Ecole De La Varenne. In addition, he has worked as Chief Gastronomic Officer for Zagat Survey, publisher of the popular Zagat restaurant guidebooks. Through his many visits to the world's top restaurants, Myhrvold has become personally acquainted with many of the leading Modernist chefs and the science-inspired cooking techniques they have pioneered.
Myhrvold is himself an accomplished practitioner of Modernist cuisine. He has contributed original research on cooking sous vide to online culinary forums, and his sous vide techniques have been covered in the New York Times Magazine, Wired, and PBS's "Gourmet's Diary of a Foodie" television series.
Watch another interesting video Now,if you have time to spare ;-)... Food Texture and Mouth Feel- Lecture 5- Grant Achatz
Friday
Food Texture and Mouth Feel- Lecture 5- Grant Achatz
Speaker: Grant Achatz (Alinea)
This public lecture series discusses concepts from the physical sciences that underpin both everyday cooking and haute cuisine. Each lecture features a world-class chef who visited and presented their remarkable culinary designs: Ferran Adria presented spherification; Jose Andres discussed both the basic components of food and gelation; Joan Roca demonstrated sous vide; Enric Rovira showed his chocolate delicacies; Wylie Dufresne presented inventions with transglutaminase. The lectures then use these culinary creations as inspiration to delve into understanding how and why cooking techniques and recipes work, focusing on the physical transformations of foods and material properties.
Watch Next Video: Gelation- Lecture 6- José Andrés (ThinkFoodGroup, minibar, Jaleo)
Who is Grant Achatz?
Alinea
(restaurant)
Alinea is a restaurant in Chicago that
opened on May 4, 2005. Its head chef and owner, Grant
Achatz, is known for his preparations and deconstructions of classic
flavors. In 2010, Alinea became one of only two restaurants in Chicago to
receive the highest rating of three stars from the Michelin Guide and was
subsequently reviewed by restaurant critic Sam Sifton in the New York Times.
The restaurant takes its name from the symbol alinea, which is featured as a
logo. Alinea ranked number one in the Elite Traveler World's Top Restaurants Guide, 2012.
Book
Photos
Gelation- Lecture 6- José Andrés (ThinkFoodGroup, minibar, Jaleo)
José Andrés (ThinkFoodGroup, minibar, Jaleo)
This public lecture series discusses concepts from the physical sciences that underpin both everyday cooking and haute cuisine. Each lecture features a world-class chef who visited and presented their remarkable culinary designs: Ferran Adria presented spherification; Jose Andres discussed both the basic components of food and gelation; Joan Roca demonstrated sous vide; Enric Rovira showed his chocolate delicacies; Wylie Dufresne presented inventions with transglutaminase. The lectures then use these culinary creations as inspiration to delve into understanding how and why cooking techniques and recipes work, focusing on the physical transformations of foods and material properties.
Watch Next Video: Mixing the Unmixable- Lecture 7- Nandu Jubany- Carles Gaig
Who is José Andrés?
Jaleo
The Spirit &
Flavors of Spain
Under the direction of
famed chef José
Andrés, Jaleo offers an impressive assortment of tapas, the traditional
small dishes of Spain, as well as savory paellas, superb sangrias and a fine
selection of Spanish wines and Sherries in a festive, casual atmosphere.
Created in 1993 by Rob Wilder, Roberto Alvarez, and José Andrés, Jaleo has
become a DC institution.
Awards
1. Eater
Award for "Stone Cold Stunner" Monday, November 12, 2012
2. The
Washington Post’s Dining Guide Wednesday, October 17, 2012
3. Washingtonian
Magazine’s 100 Best Restaurants Tuesday, March 13, 2012
Thursday
Mixing the Unmixable- Lecture 7- Nandu Jubany- Carles Gaig
Speaker: Nandu Jubany (Can Jubany) and Carles Gaig (Fonda Gaig)
This public lecture series discusses concepts from the physical sciences that underpin both everyday cooking and haute cuisine. Each lecture features a world-class chef who visited and presented their remarkable culinary designs: Ferran Adria presented spherification; Jose Andres discussed both the basic components of food and gelation; Joan Roca demonstrated sous vide; Enric Rovira showed his chocolate delicacies; Wylie Dufresne presented inventions with transglutaminase. The lectures then use these culinary creations as inspiration to delve into understanding how and why cooking techniques and recipes work, focusing on the physical transformations of foods and material properties.
Watch Next Video: Proteins & Enzymes: Transglutaminase- Lecture 8- Wylie Dufresne
Who is Nandu Jubany?
Who is Carles Gaig?
Carles Gaig is one of the Spanish
chefs who have been able to maintain a perfect balance between traditional
cuisine from which they have learnt so much, and avant-garde cuisine, which
they have explored and from which they have earned international recognition.
This chef's career has
centered above all on Catalonian cuisine. But a visit to the Basque Country
back in 1975 opened his eyes and led him to discover new horizons beyond his
family's restaurant in Barcelona. As an adolescent, his plan was to become a
mechanic but, after his military service, he met Juan Mari Arzak and heard about Bocuse and Girardet,
just when Nouvelle Cuisine was making its mark.
Gaig's family background
pointed him in the right direction. Since 1869, his family had run an eating
house in Barcelona, and both his grandmother and his mother had taught him the
essentials of Catalonian culinary tradition. Then, his blossoming friendship
with Arzak gave him new ideas, fresh from New Basque Cuisine (Nueva Cocina
Vasca ) and its source of inspiration, French Nouvelle Cuisine.
Eventually, Carles
took over the family business in the Hortes district of Barcelona and, after a
number of changes, it received its first Michelin
star in 1993. Later on, in 2004, he received an offer to move his
restaurant to the central Eixample district, in the Hotel Cram. This was the
start of a new period of greater visibility, with the arrival of both a new
local clientele and tourists in search of Catalonian haute cuisine.
Gaig claims to keep a
watch over all the ingredients coming into his restaurant's kitchen. Though he
has plenty of reliable sources, Gaig goes every morning to the Boquería market
to purchase fresh goods for his restaurant, where the menu is forward-looking
but does not lose sight of tradition.
In 2008, Gaig opened
up a new establishment in Barcelona, which he runs in addition to the small
Gaig (a mere 16 tables as well as a
private dining-room). It is called Fonda Gaig. Tradition rules,
and the star dishes are meatballs with cuttlefish, and Catalan-style cannelloni
- old-fashioned recipes but prepared and presented in modern ways. Restaurante Gaig and Fonda Gaig represent two complementary ways of seeing Catalonian
cuisine but watched over by a single chef, Carles Gaig.
Proteins & Enzymes: Transglutaminase- Lecture 8- Wylie Dufresne
Wylie Dufresne (wd~50)
This public lecture
series discusses concepts from the physical sciences that underpin both
everyday cooking and haute cuisine. Each lecture features a world-class chef
who visited and presented their remarkable culinary designs: Ferran Adria presented spherification; Jose Andres discussed both the basic components
of food and gelation; Joan Roca demonstrated sous vide; Enric Rovira showed his chocolate delicacies; Wylie Dufresne presented inventions with
transglutaminase. The lectures then use these culinary creations as inspiration
to delve into understanding how and why cooking techniques and recipes work,
focusing on the physical transformations of foods and material properties.
Watch Next Video: Playing with Taste through Browning- Lecture 9- Carme Ruscalleda
wd~50
wd~50 is a molecular
gastronomy New American, eclectic/international restaurant located at 50
Clinton Street (between Rivington Street and Stanton Street), on the Lower East
Side in Manhattan in New York City. It was opened in 2003 by Chef Wylie
Dufresne.
It was listed among
the S.Pellegrino World's 50 Best Restaurants for 2010. In 2006 the restaurant
received a Michelin
star in the New York City guide, and has held onto it since.
Playing with Taste through Browning- Lecture 9- Carme Ruscalleda
Carme Ruscalleda (Sant Pau, Sant Pau de Tòquio)
This public lecture
series discusses concepts from the physical sciences that underpin both
everyday cooking and haute cuisine. Each lecture features a world-class chef
who visited and presented their remarkable culinary designs: Ferran Adria presented spherification; Jose Andres discussed both the basic components
of food and gelation; Joan Roca demonstrated sous vide; Enric Rovira showed his chocolate delicacies; Wylie Dufresne presented inventions with transglutaminase.
The lectures then use these culinary creations as inspiration to delve into
understanding how and why cooking techniques and recipes work, focusing on the
physical transformations of foods and material properties.
Watch Next Video: Molecular Differences Between Production Methods- Lecture 10- Dan Barber
Sant Pau
(restaurant)
Sant Pau is a Spanish restaurant in Sant Pol
de Mar, Catalonia (Spain), a town between Barcelona and Girona. In 2009 it was
awarded three Michelin
stars and three Campsa-Repsol suns, and ranked 56th in the Elite Traveler
World's Top Restaurants Guide 2012. Its chef is Carme
Ruscalleda, and the dining room is directed by Toni Balam. In 2006 Sant Pau opened a branch in Chuo-ku, Tokyo
which currently has 2 Michelin stars.
Awards
1) 1992 They represent
Catalan cooking in Sevilla's Universal Exposition.
2) 1995 Price Best
Chef, by the guide Lo mejor de la gastronomía
3) Medalla al Mèrit
Cívic, by Obra del
Ballet Popular
4) 1997 Price Restaurant
of the Year, by Gourmetour
5) 1998 Premio
Nacional de Gastronomía, by Academia Española de Gastronomía, Cofradía
de la Buena Mesa and Secretaría de Estado y Turismo de España.
6) Price Sánchez
Cotán, by Academia Española de Gastronomía
7) Price Davidoff
8) Price Nadal de
la Gastronomia for being the Restaurant of the Year
9) Price Chef of
the Year to Carme Ruscalleda
10) 2000 Price Golden
Chef to Carme Ruscalleda, by Intxaurrondoko Gastronomi Elkartea
11) 2001 Price Dona
Emprenedora to Carme Ruscalleda, by FIDEM
12) 2004 Price Restaurant
of the Year, by Gourmetour
12) 2008 Creu de Sant
Jordi to Carme Ruscalleda, by Generalitat de Catalunya
Molecular Differences Between Production Methods- Lecture 10- Dan Barber
Dan Barber (Blue Hill)
This public lecture
series discusses concepts from the physical sciences that underpin both
everyday cooking and haute cuisine. Each lecture features a world-class chef
who visited and presented their remarkable culinary designs: Ferran Adria presented spherification; Jose Andres discussed both the basic components
of food and gelation; Joan Roca demonstrated sous vide; Enric Rovira showed his chocolate delicacies; Wylie Dufresne presented inventions with transglutaminase.
The lectures then use these culinary creations as inspiration to delve into
understanding how and why cooking techniques and recipes work, focusing on the
physical transformations of foods and material properties.
Watch Next Video: Food Microbiology: An Overlooked Frontier- Lecture 11- David Chang
Who is Dan Barber?
Dan
Barber (Blue Hill)
The Blue Hill
Restaurant is a restaurant located at 75 Washington Place (between
MacDougal Street and 6th Avenue) near Washington Square Park in Greenwich
Village, Manhattan in New York City, with a second location (Blue Hill at
Stone Barns) in the Pocantico Hills about 30 miles outside the city. It has
been reviewed by the New York Times, and New York magazine.
Wednesday
Food Microbiology: An Overlooked Frontier- Lecture 11- David Chang
Speaker: David Chang (momofuku)
This public lecture series discusses concepts from the physical sciences that underpin both everyday cooking and haute cuisine. Each lecture features a world-class chef who visited and presented their remarkable culinary designs: Ferran Adria presented spherification; Jose Andres discussed both the basic components of food and gelation; Joan Roca demonstrated sous vide; Enric Rovira showed his chocolate delicacies; Wylie Dufresne presented inventions with transglutaminase. The lectures then use these culinary creations as inspiration to delve into understanding how and why cooking techniques and recipes work, focusing on the physical transformations of foods and material properties.
Watch Next Video: Science in the Kitchen- Lecture 12- Nathan Myhrvold
Who is David Chang?
What is Food
Microbiology?
Food microbiology is the study of the microorganisms
that inhabit, create, or contaminate food. Including the study of microorganisms
causing food spoilage. "Good" bacteria, however, such as probiotics, are becoming increasingly
important in food science. In addition, microorganisms are essential for the
production of foods such as cheese, yogurt, other fermented foods, bread, beer
and wine.
Food Safety
Food safety is a major
focus of food microbiology. Pathogenic bacteria, viruses and toxins produced by
microorganisms are all possible contaminants of food. However, microorganisms
and their products can also be used to combat these pathogenic microbes. Probiotic bacteria, including those that
produce bacteriocins, can kill and inhibit pathogens. Alternatively,
purified bacteriocins such as nisin
can be added directly to food products. Finally, bacteriophages, viruses that only infect bacteria, can be used to
kill bacterial pathogens. Thorough preparation of food, including proper cooking,
eliminates most bacteria and viruses. However, toxins produced by contaminants
may not be heat-labile, and some are not eliminated by cooking.
Fermentation
Fermentation is one
way microorganisms can change a food. Yeast, especially Saccharomyces
cerevisiae, is used to leaven bread, brew beer and make wine. Certain bacteria,
including lactic acid bacteria, are used to make yogurt, cheese, hot sauce, pickles,
fermented sausages and dishes such as kimchee. A common effect of these
fermentations is that the food product is less hospitable to other microorganisms,
including pathogens and spoilage-causing microorganisms, thus extending the
food's shelf-life.
Some cheese varieties
also require molds to ripen and develop their characteristic flavors.
Microbial
biopolymers
Several microbially
produced polymers are used in the food industry.
Alginate
Alginates
can be used as thickening agents.
Although listed under the category 'Microbial polysaccharides', commercial
alginates are currently only produced by extraction from brown seaweeds such as
Laminaria hyperborea or L. japonica.
Cellulose
Cellulose is a simple
polysaccharide, in that it consists only of one type of sugar (glucose), and
the units are linearly arranged and linked together by β-1, 4 linkages only.
The mechanism of biosynthesis is, however, rather complex, partly because in
native celluloses, the chains are organized as highly ordered water-insoluble
fibers. Currently, the key genes involved in cellulose biosynthesis and
regulation are known in a number of bacteria, but many details of the
biochemistry of its biosynthesis are still not clear. In spite of the enormous
abundance of cellulose in plants, bacterial celluloses are being investigated
for industrial exploitations.
Poly-γ-glutamic
acid
Poly-γ-glutamic acid
(γ-PGA) produced by various strains of Bacillus has potential applications
as a thickener in the food industry.
Exopolysaccharides
Microorganisms
synthesize a wide spectrum of multifunctional polysaccharides, including
intracellular polysaccharides, structural polysaccharides and extracellular
polysaccharides or exopolysaccharides (EPSs). EPSs generally consist of
monosaccharides and some noncarbohydrate substituents (such as acetate, pyruvate,
succinate, and phosphate). Owing to the wide diversity in composition, they
have found multifarious applications in various food and pharmaceutical
industries.
Food
borne Pathogens
Enteric viruses
Food and waterborne viruses
contribute to a substantial number of illnesses throughout the world. Among those
most commonly known are hepatitis A
virus, rotavirus, astrovirus, enteric adenovirus, hepatitis
E virus, and the human caliciviruses
consisting of the noroviruses and the Sapporo viruses. This diverse group
is transmitted
by the fecal-oral route, often by ingestion of contaminated water and food.
Protozoan
parasites
Protozoan parasites
associated with food and water can cause illness in humans. Although parasites
are more commonly found in developing countries, developed countries have also
experienced several food borne outbreaks. Contaminants may be inadvertently
introduced to the foods by inadequate handling practices, either on the farm or
during processing of foods. Protozoan parasites can be found worldwide, either
infecting wild animals or in water and contaminating crops grown for human
consumption. The disease can be much more severe and prolonged in
immunocompromissed individuals.
Mycotoxins
Molds produce mycotoxins, which are secondary metabolites
that can cause acute or chronic diseases in humans when ingested from
contaminated foods. Potential diseases include cancers and tumors in different
organs (heart, liver, kidney, nerves), gastrointestinal disturbances,
alteration of the immune system, and reproductive problems.
Species of Aspergillus,
Fusarium, Penicillium, and Claviceps grow in agricultural
commodities or foods and produce the mycotoxins such as aflatoxins,
deoxynivalenol, ochratoxin A, fumonisins, ergot alkaloids, T-2 toxin, and
zearalenone and other minor mycotoxins such as cyclopiazonic acid and patulin.
Mycotoxins occur mainly in cereal grains (barley, maize, rye, wheat), coffee,
dairy products, fruits, nuts and spices. Control of mycotoxins in foods has
focused on minimizing mycotoxin production in the field, during storage or
destruction once produced. Monitoring foods for mycotoxins is important to
manage strategies such as regulations and guidelines, which are used by 77
countries, and for developing exposure assessments essential for accurate risk
characterization.
Aflatoxins are still
recognized as the most important mycotoxins. They are synthesized by only a few
Aspergillus species, of which A. flavus and A. parasiticus
are the most problematic. The expression of aflatoxin-related diseases is
influenced by factors such as age, nutrition, sex, species and the possibility
of concurrent exposure to other toxins. The main target organ in mammals is the
liver, so aflatoxicosis is primarily
a hepatic disease. Conditions increasing the likelihood of aflatoxicosis in
humans include limited availability of food, environmental conditions that
favor mold growth on foodstuffs, and lack of regulatory systems for aflatoxin
monitoring and control.
Yersinia
enterocolitica
Yersinia
enterocolitica
includes pathogens and environmental strains that are ubiquitous in terrestrial
and fresh water ecosystems. Evidence from large outbreaks of yersiniosis and
from epidemiological studies of sporadic cases has shown that Y.
enterocolitica is a food borne pathogen. Pork is often implicated as the
source of infection. The pig is the only animal consumed by man
that regularly harbors pathogenic Y.
enterocolitica. An important property of the bacterium is its
ability to multiply at temperatures near 0°C, and therefore in many chilled
foods. The pathogenic serovars (mainly O:3, O:5, 27, O:8 and O:9) show
different geographical distribution. However, the appearance of strains of
serovars O:3 and O:9 in Europe, Japan in the 1970s, and in North America by the
end of the 1980s, is an example of a global pandemic. There is a possible risk
of reactive arthritis following
infection with Y. enterocolitica.
Vibrio
Vibrio species are prevalent in estuarine
and marine environments, and seven species can cause food borne infections
associated with seafood. Vibrio cholerae O1 and O139 serovtypes produce
cholera toxin and are agents of cholera. However, fecal-oral route infections
in the terrestrial environment are responsible for epidemic cholera. V.
cholerae non-O1/O139 strains may cause gastroenteritis through production
of known toxins or unknown mechanism.
Vibrio
parahaemolytitcus
strains capable of producing thermostable direct hemolysin (TDH) and/or
TDH-related hemolysin are most important causes of gastroenteritis associated
with seafood consumption. Vibrio vulnificus is responsible for seafood
borne primary septicemia, and its infectivity depends primarily on the risk
factors of the host. V. vulnificus infection has the highest case
fatality rate (50%) of any food borne pathogen. Four other species (V.
mimicus, V. hollisae, V. fluvialis, and V. furnissii)
can cause gastroenteritis. Some strains of these species produce known toxins,
but the pathogenic mechanism is largely not understood. The ecology of and
detection and control methods for all seafood borne Vibrio pathogens are
essentially similar.
Staphylococcus
aureus
Staphylococcus
aureus is a common
cause of bacterial food borne disease worldwide. Symptoms include vomiting and
diarrhea that occur shortly after ingestion of S. aureus
toxin-contaminated food. The symptoms arise from ingestion of preformed
enterotoxin, which accounts for the short incubation time.
Staphylococcal
enterotoxins are superantigens and, as such, have adverse effects on the immune
system. The enterotoxin genes are accessory genetic elements in S. aureus,
meaning not all strains of this organism are enterotoxin-producing. The
enterotoxin genes are found on prophages, plasmids, and pathogenicity islands
in different strains of S. aureus. Expression of the enterotoxin genes
is often under the control of global virulence gene regulatory systems.
Campylobacter
Campylobacter spp., primarily C. jejuni
subsp. jejuni is one of the major
causes of bacterial gastroenteritis in the U.S. and worldwide. Campylobacter
infection is primarily a food borne illness, usually without complications;
however, serious sequelae, such as Guillain-Barre Syndrome, occur in a small
subset of infected patients. Detection of C. jejuni in clinical samples
is readily accomplished by culture and nonculture methods.
Listeria
monocytogenes
Listeria
monocytogenes is
Gram-positive food borne bacterial pathogen and the causative agent of human
listeriosis. Listeria infections are acquired primarily through the
consumption of contaminated foods, including soft cheese, raw milk, deli salads,
and ready-to-eat foods such as luncheon
meats and frankfurters. Although L. monocytogenes infection is
usually limited to individuals that are immunocompromised, the high mortality
rate associated with human listeriosis makes it the leading cause of death
among food borne bacterial pathogens. As a result, tremendous effort has been
made to develop methods for the isolation, detection and control of L.
monocytogenes in foods.
Salmonella
Salmonella serotypes continue to be a
prominent threat to food safety worldwide. Infections are commonly acquired by
animal to human transmission though consumption of undercooked food products derived from livestock or domestic fowl.
The second half of the 20th century saw the emergence of Salmonella
serotypes that became associated with new food sources (i.e. chicken eggs) and
the emergence of Salmonella serotypes with resistance against multiple
antibiotics.
Shigella
Shigella species are members of the family Enterobacteriaceae
and are Gram negative, nonmotile rods. Four subgroups exist based on O-antigen
structure and biochemical properties: S. dysenteriae (subgroup A), S.
flexneri (subgroup B), S. boydii (subgroup C) and S. sonnei
(subgroup D). Symptoms include mild to severe diarrhea with or without blood,
fever, tenesmus and abdominal pain. Further complications of the disease may be
seizures, toxic megacolon, reactive arthritis and hemolytic uremic syndrome. Transmission
of the pathogen is by the fecal-oral route, commonly through food and water.
The infectious dose ranges from 10-100 organisms. Shigella spp. have a
sophisticated pathogenic mechanism to invade colonic epithelial cells of the
host, man and higher primates, and the ability to multiply intracellularly and
spread from cell to adjacent cell via actin polymerization. Shigella
spp. are one of the leading causes of bacterial food borne illnesses and can
spread quickly within a population.
Escherichia
coli
More information is
available concerning Escherichia coli than any other organism, thus making
E. coli the most thoroughly studied species in the microbial world. For
many years, E. coli was considered a commensal of human and animal
intestinal tracts with low virulence potential. It is now known that many
strains of E. coli act as pathogens, inducing serious gastrointestinal
diseases and even death in humans. There are six major categories of E. coli
strains that cause enteric diseases in humans, including the:
1. Enterohemorrhagic E.
coli, which cause hemorrhagic colitis and hemolytic uremic syndrome,
2. Enterotoxigenic E.
coli, which induce traveler's diarrhea,
3. Enteropathogenic E.
coli, which cause a persistent diarrhea in children living in developing
countries,
4. Enteroaggregative E.
coli, which provokes diarrhea in children,
5. Enteroinvasive E.
coli that are biochemically and genetically related to Shigella
species and can induce diarrhea,
6. Diffusely adherent E.
coli, which cause diarrhea and are distinguished by a characteristic type
of adherence to mammalian cells.
Clostridium botulinum and Clostridium perfringens
Clostridium
botulinum produces
extremely potent neurotoxins that result in the severe neuroparalytic disease, botulism. The enterotoxin produced by C.
perfringens during sporulation of vegetative cells in the host intestine
results in debilitating acute diarrhea and abdominal pain. Sales of refrigerated, processed foods of
extended durability including sous-vide foods, chilled ready-to-eat meals, and
cook-chill foods have increased over recent years. Anaerobic spore-formers have
been identified as the primary microbiological concerns in these foods. Heightened
awareness over intentional food source tampering with botulinum neurotoxin has
arisen with respect to genes encoding the toxins that are capable of transfer
to nontoxigenic clostridia.
Bacillus
cereus
The Bacillus cereus
group comprises six members: B. anthracis, B. cereus, B.
mycoides, B. pseudomycoides, B. thuringiensis and B.
weihenstephanensis. These species are closely related and should be placed
within one species, except for B. anthracis that possesses specific
large virulence plasmids. B. cereus is a normal soil inhabitant, and is
frequently isolated from a variety of foods, including vegetables, dairy
products and meat. It causes a vomiting or diarrhea illness that is becoming
increasingly important in the industrialized world. Some patients may
experience both types of illness simultaneously. The diarrheal type of illness
is most prevalent in the western hemisphere, whereas the emetic type is most
prevalent in Japan.
Desserts, meat dishes,
and dairy products are the foods most frequently associated with diarrheal
illness, whereas rice and pasta are the most common vehicles of emetic illness.
The emetic toxin (cereulide) has been isolated and characterized; it is a small
ring peptide synthesised nonribosomally by a peptide synthetase. Three types of
B. cereus enterotoxins involved in food borne outbreaks have been
identified. Two of these enterotoxins are three-component proteins and are
related, while the last is a one-component protein (CytK). Deaths have been
recorded both by strains that produce the emetic toxin and by a strain
producing only CytK. Some strains of the B. cereus group are able to
grow at refrigeration temperatures. These variants raise concern about the
safety of cooked, refrigerated foods with an extended shelf life. B. cereus
spores adhere to many surfaces and survive normal washing and disinfection
(except for hypochlorite and UVC) procedures. B. cereus food borne
illness is likely under-reported because of its relatively mild symptoms, which
are of short duration.
Food
authenticity
It is important to be
able to detect microorganisms in food, in particular pathogenic microorganisms
or genetically modified microorganisms. Real-time PCR is an accepted analytical
tool within the food industry. Its principal role has been one of assisting the
legislative authorities, major manufacturers and retailers to confirm the
authenticity of foods. The most obvious role is the detection of genetically
modified organisms, but real-time PCR makes a significant contribution to other
areas of the food industry, including food safety.
Food testing
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